Lithopone B301, Lithopone B311 powder, brilliant white pigment used in paints, inks, leather, paper, linoleum, and face powder. It was developed in the 1870s as a substitute or supplement for lead carbonate (white lead), to overcome its drawbacks of toxicity, poor weathering, and darkening in atmospheres that contain sulfur compounds. Lithopone B301, Lithopone B311 powder is an insoluble mixture of barium sulfate and zinc sulfide that precipitates upon mixing solutions of barium sulfide and zinc sulfate. The precipitate is recovered by filtration, then calcined (roasted) at temperatures above 600° C (1,112° F). Although Lithopone B301, Lithopone B311 powder has been replaced in many applications by titanium dioxide, it is still widely used in a number of products, such as water paints.

Nano, or ultrafine, TiO₂ comprises primary particles sized less than 100nm. In this grade, titanium dioxide is transparent (colourless) and boasts improved UV scattering and absorbing properties compared with larger particle-size pigmentary TiO₂.

The photocatalytic activity of titanium dioxide results in thin coatings exhibiting self-cleaning and disinfecting properties under exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Alloys are characterized by being lightweight and having very high tensile strength (even at high temperatures), high corrosion resistance, and an ability to withstand extreme temperatures and thus are used principally in aircraft, pipes for power plants, armour plating, naval ships, spacecraft, and missiles.

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Algaecidal effect of Lithopon: After 5 years of exposure to weathering in Alpen (Lower Rhine)  

Different dermal cell types have been reported to differ in their sensitivity to nano-sized TiO₂ . Kiss et al. exposed human keratinocytes (HaCaT), human dermal fibroblast cells, sebaceous gland cells (SZ95) and primary human melanocytes to 9 nm-sized TiO₂ particles at concentrations from 0.15 to 15 μg/cm² for up to 4 days. The particles were detected in the cytoplasm and perinuclear region in fibroblasts and melanocytes, but not in kerati-nocytes or sebaceous cells. The uptake was associated with an increase in the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration. A dose- and time-dependent decrease in cell proliferation was evident in all cell types, whereas in fibroblasts an increase in cell death via apoptosis has also been observed. Anatase TiO₂ in 20–100 nm-sized form has been shown to be cytotoxic in mouse L929 fibroblasts. The decrease in cell viability was associated with an increase in the production of ROS and the depletion of glutathione. The particles were internalized and detected within lysosomes. In human keratinocytes exposed for 24 h to non-illuminated, 7 nm-sized anatase TiO_2, a cluster analysis of the gene expression revealed that genes involved in the “inflammatory response” and “cell adhesion”, but not those involved in “oxidative stress” and “apoptosis”, were up-regulated. The results suggest that non-illuminated TiO₂ particles have no significant impact on ROS-associated oxidative damage, but affect the cell-matrix adhesion in keratinocytes in extracellular matrix remodelling. In human keratinocytes, Kocbek et al. investigated the adverse effects of 25 nm-sized anatase TiO₂ (5 and 10 μg/ml) after 3 months of exposure and found no changes in the cell growth and morphology, mitochondrial function and cell cycle distribution. The only change was a larger number of nanotubular intracellular connections in TiO₂-exposed cells compared to non-exposed cells. Although the authors proposed that this change may indicate a cellular transformation, the significance of this finding is not clear. On the other hand, Dunford et al. studied the genotoxicity of UV-irradiated TiO₂ extracted from sunscreen lotions, and reported severe damage to plasmid and nuclear DNA in human fibroblasts. Manitol (antioxidant) prevented DNA damage, implying that the genotoxicity was mediated by ROS.

Overall, buff percentage is a critical factor that manufacturers of titanium dioxide must carefully manage to ensure the quality, consistency, and cost-effectiveness of their products. By investing in advanced technology and processes to control buff percentage, manufacturers can meet the specific requirements of their customers and maintain a competitive edge in the market. As the demand for titanium dioxide continues to grow across various industries, manufacturers must continue to innovate and improve their processes to meet the evolving needs of their customers.